so closely akin to methods of forming nominal stems that they need not
be discussed here.

Schleicher gives two methods of forming secondary verb stems: by suffix
sa forming frequentatives; by suffix ya cause to be, forming transitive
verbs from verbs, adjectives and nouns. Both are living suffixes
extremely frequent and having the same force in Dak.

NOMINAL STEMS.

As in I E a few Dak roots either single or reduplicated form nomen
actionis, etc. This similarity is too widely spread to be of value. It
is far otherwise with suffixes, which are in a majority of cases usually
representative of one or more of Schleicher's twenty suffixes, and if
otherwise at least derived from I E roots, excepting a few of obscure
origin.

1. I E -a formed from roots, adjectives, also appellatives, and
abstracts, of which the Dak. has many relics: I E stag, Teut stak strike
beat; Dak staka beaten, broken; Slav. Teut kak sound; Dak kaka rattling;
I E pu stink, rot; Min pua stinking, rotten; Eu sap understand; Lat sapa
wise; Dak k-sapa wise.

Slav Teut kak cackle, kaka the crow; Pawnee kaka; Man keka the crow; Eu
sara stream flow, sara butter; Min tsara; Tit Dak sla grease; I E ar
join whence our arm; Win and Min ara, the arm; Slav Teut lap, lamp
shine; Dak ampa light; Slav Teut krup fear; Dak kopa noun fear, a
fearful place; adj insecure; a Scandinavian base naf, nap, our nab, Icel
nefi; Swed nefwa (perhaps i was the original suffix) the hand; Dak nape
the hand; I E kak spring; Lith szaka (pronounced shaka) twig shoot, etc;
Dak shake nails claws; Om shage finger; Min shaki hand paw.

In Dak as in I E -a usually raises the stem vowel; I E kid burn; Teut
haita hot; Dak kata hot; I E sik dry; Dak saka also shecha dried; I E
lip adhere; Tit Dak lapa sticky adhesive; I E migh pour out water, Skt
megha cloud; Om magha, mangha cloud sky; Crow makha sky; Dak in makhpiya
(maghapiya) cloud sky, maghazhu rain. The zhu is Dak-zhu, Min-ghu, I E
ghu pour.

2. I E -i formed abstracts and nouns of agency; I E ar go; Min ari, way,
track, trail.

3. I E -u formed adjectives; I E ragh spring, raghu light, whence lungs;
Min dagho, agho; Dak chaghu lungs;[G] Eu park whence parka wrinkle; Dak
pako crooked, wrinkled.

4. I E -ya formed nouns, adjectives and participles. The Dak still
retains some adjectives thus formed, and hundreds of participles
rendered by English participles, but used only adverbially, and it has
become an adverbial suffix.