thened. Feudalism was undermined by means of
the consolidation of fiefs, the association of lord and vassal, the
introduction of a new military system, the transfer of estates, and the
promotion of the study and use of Roman jurisprudence. Ecclesiasticism
was greatly strengthened at Rome, through the power of the pope and the
authority of his legates, the development of monastic orders, by the
introduction of force and the use of the engine of excommunication.
But something was gained for the common people, for serfs could be
readily emancipated and there was a freer movement among all people.
Ideas of equality began to be disseminated, which had their effect on
the relation of affairs. Upon the whole it may be stated in conclusion
that the emancipation of the mind had begun.

SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Show how the crusades helped to break down feudalism and prepare
for monarchy.

2. What intellectual benefit were the crusades to Europe?

3. Were there humanitarian and democratic elements of progress in the
crusades?

4. What was the effect of the crusades on the power of the church?

5. What was the general influence of the crusades on civilization?

6. How did the crusades stimulate commerce?

[1] See Chapter XXI.

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CHAPTER XXI

ATTEMPTS AT POPULAR GOVERNMENT

_The Cost of Popular Government_.--The early forms of government were
for the most part based upon hereditary authority or upon force. The
theories of government first advanced seldom had reference to the rule
of the popular will. The practice of civil affairs, enforcing theories
of hereditary government or the rule of force, interfered with the
rights of self-government of the people. Hence every attempt to assume
popular government was a struggle against old systems and old ideas.
Freedom has been purchased by money or blood. Men point with interest
to the early assemblies of the Teutonic people to show the germs of
democratic government, afterward to be overshadowed by imperialism, but
a careful consideration would show that even this early stage of pure
democracy was only a developed state from the earlier hereditary
nobility. The Goddess of Liberty is ideally a creature of beautiful
form, but really her face is scarred and worn, her figure gnarled and
warped with time, and her garments besprinkled with blood. The
selfishness of man, the struggle for survival, and the momentum of
governmental machinery, h