nctions of state life developed, feudalism
became the ruling principle, from which many strove in vain to free
themselves. There were in France, in the time {297} of Hugh Capet,
according to Kitchen, "about a million of souls living on and taking
their names from about 70,000 separate fiefs or properties; of these
about 3,000 carried titles with them. Of these again, no less than a
hundred were sovereign states, greater or smaller, whose lords could
coin money, levy taxes, make laws, and administer their own
justice."[1] Thus the effect of feudal tenure was to arrange society
into these small, compact social groups, each of which must really
retain its power by force of arms. The method gave color to monarchy,
which later became universal.

_Other Elements of Feudalism_.--Prominent among the characteristics of
feudalism was the existence of a close personal bond between the
grantor and the receiver of an estate. The receiver did homage to the
grantor in the form of oath, and also took the oath of fealty. In the
former he knelt before the lord and promised to become his man on
account of the land which he held, and to be faithful to him in defense
of life and limb against all people. The oath of fealty was only a
stronger oath of the same tenor, in which the vassal, standing before
the lord, appealed to God as a witness. These two oaths, at first
entirely separate, became merged into one, which passed by the name of
the oath of fealty. When the lord desired to raise an army he had only
to call his leading vassals, and they in turn called those under them.
When he needed help to harvest his grain the vassals were called upon
for service.

Besides the service rendered, there were feudal aids to be paid on
certain occasions. The chief of these were the ransom of the lord when
captured, the amount paid when the eldest son was knighted, and the
dowry on the marriage of the eldest daughter. There were lesser feudal
taxes called reliefs. Of these the more important were the payment of
a tax by the heir of a deceased vassal upon succession to property,
one-half year's profit paid when a ward became of age, and the right to
escheated lands of the vassal. The lord also had the right to land
forfeited on account of certain heinous crimes. {298} Wardship
entitled the lord to the use of lands during the minority of the ward.
The lord also had a right to choose a husband for the female ward at
the age of fourteen; if s