re toward originality--in which the
insular peculiarities were strongly emphasized--served to increase the
self-reliance of German literature; how a new movement in the style of
the antique was cultivated by the classical writers; and how the
Romantic School favored medieval-Christian tendencies--much to
Goethe's annoyance. It is of importance likewise to note the way in
which Young Germany learned how to gain political-literary effects
from the new French models; and finally, how the Northern realism of
presentation, amalgamated with Tolstoy's, Bjoernson's, Strindberg's and
also Ibsen's ethical subjectivity, educated the naturalism of the
Germans. It is precisely those poets that are especially characterized
by German peculiarities who have also trained themselves in the use of
foreign subjects and forms: thus did Uhland, Moerike, Hebbel, and all
the Romanticists. We have already had occasion many times to call
attention in detail to the educational effect of foreign countries.

German literature is, in short, one that possesses the typical moments
of development which mark all literatures, and which Wilhelm Scherer
was the first to call to our notice: that is to say, it is a
complicated organism in which the most varied tendencies cross one
another, the most dissimilar generations of writers meet together, and
the most remarkable events occur in the most unforeseen manner.

If we should now try to get a closer view of the last and by far the
most important factor of literature, namely, the individual writers
themselves, this difficulty in obtaining a general view of the whole,
this working of the different parts against one another, this pulling
away from one another, presents itself more clearly to us here than
anywhere else. The attempt to classify the development of our
literature into distinct groups according to the personalities which
compose them has been frequently made, since I, in spite of all the
difficulties and dangers of such a hazardous enterprise, first
undertook, in my _German Literature of the Nineteenth Century_, to
give an historical and complete presentation of a literature which had
as yet scarcely become historic. I can here merely refer in passing to
my own efforts and to those of Bartels, Biese, Riemann, and
Soergel--to name only these; for in compliance with the purpose of
this introduction we must confine ourselves to giving a general
comprehensive outline--although it would be easy to impr