ty of the community, but also with
the rights of the individual. The moral ideals and sanctions for
business honesty are therefore doubly strong with us. The old order of
Japan was in no way dependent for its integrity on business honor and
honesty, and, as we have seen, individuals, as such, were not thought
to have inherent rights. Under such conditions, it is difficult to
conceive how universal moral ideals and sanctions for business
relations could be developed and maintained.

One further point demands attention. We naturally ask what the grounds
were on which the ethical ideals were commonly supposed to have
authority. So far as my knowledge goes, this question received almost
no consideration by the ordinary person, and but little from the
moralist. Old Japan was not accustomed to ask "Why?" It accepted
everything on the authority of the teacher, as children do, and as all
primitive peoples do. There was little or no thought as to the source
of the moral ideals or as to the nature or the function of the social
sanctions. If, as in a few instances, the questions were raised as to
their authority, the reply ordinarily would be that they had derived
their teachings from ancient times. And, if the matter were pressed,
it would be argued that the most ancient times were nearer the
beginning of men, and, therefore, nearer to Heaven, which decreed that
all the duties and customs of men; in the final resort, therefore,
authority would be attributed to Heaven. But such a questioner was
rare. Moral law was unhesitatingly accepted on the authority of the
teacher, and no uncomfortable questions were asked. It is easy to see
that both of the pivotal moral ideals, _i.e._, loyalty and filial
piety, would support this unquestioning habit of mind, for to ask
questions as to authority is the beginning both of disloyalty to the
master and of irreverence to the parents and ancestors.

The whole social order, being one of authority, unquestioned and
absolute, moral standards were accepted on the ipse dixit of great
teachers.

In closing, we revert to our ever-recurring question: Are the moral
characteristics wherein the Japanese differ from other races inherent
and necessary, as are their physiological characteristics, or are they
incidental and transient, liable to transformation? Light has been
thrown on this problem by every illustration adduced. We have seen in
detail that every characteristically Japanese moral trait is due t