nly cause, though it is
in reality but the main one. There are also other causes which, either
on account of their origin or on account of their result, are called
efficient causes. But when the question is, what is best to be done,
then it is either utility or the hope of doing it which urges men's
minds to agree with the speaker. And since we have now said enough
about utility, let us speak of the means of effecting it.

XXVII. And on this point of the subject we must consider with whom,
and against whom, and at what time, and in what place we are to do
such and such a thing, also what means of arms, money, allies, or
those other things which relate to the doing of any particular thing
we have it in our power to employ. Nor must we consider only
those means which we have, but those circumstances also which
are unfavourable to us. And if in the comparison the advantages
preponderate, then we must persuade our hearers, not only that what we
are advising can be effected, but we must also take care that it shall
appear easy, manageable, and agreeable. But if we are dissuading from
any particular course, then we must either disparage the utility of
it, or we must make the most of the difficulties of doing it, not
having recourse to other rules, but to the same topics as are
used when trying to persuade our hearers to anything. And whether
persuading or dissuading, the speaker must have a store of precedents,
either modern, which will be the best known, or ancient, which will
perhaps have the most weight. And in this kind of discourse he must
consider how he may be able often to make what is useful or necessary
appear superior to what is honourable, or _vice versa_. But sentiments
of this kind will have great weight in influencing men's minds, (if it
is desirable to make an impression on them,) which relate either to
the gratification of people's desires, or to the glutting of hatred,
or to the avenging of injury. But if the object is to repress the
feelings of the hearers, then they must be reminded of the uncertainty
of fortune, of the doubtfulness of future events, and of the risk
there may be of retaining their existing fortune, if it is good; and
on the other hand, of the danger of its lasting if it is bad. And
these are topics for a peroration. But in expressing one's opinions,
the opening ought to be short, for the orator does not come forth as a
suppliant, as if he were speaking before a judge, but as an exhorter
a