other
members of the commission held to the view just stated.

[Footnote A: "Frankfurter Zeitung" of September 22, 1904:
"Concerning the question whether the horse was given some sort of
aid, Professor Stumpf expressed himself freely. He said: 'We were
careful to state in our report that the intentional use of the
(actual) means of training, on the part of the horse's teacher, is
out of the question, ... nor are there involved any of the known
kinds of unconscious, involuntary aids. Our task was completed after
we had ascertained that no tricks or aids of the traditional sort
were being employed'." After some remarks on unconscious habituation
and self-training on the part of animals, the writer arrives at the
conclusion that "the horse of Mr. von Osten has been educated by its
master in the most round-about way, in accordance with a method
suited for the development of human reasoning powers, hence in all
good faith, to give correct responses by means of tapping with the
foot. But what the horse really learned by this wearisome process
was something quite different, something that was more in accord
with his natural capacities,--he learned to discover by purely
sensory aids which are so near the threshold that they are
imperceptible for us and even for the teacher, when he is expected
to tap with his foot and when he is to come to rest."]

But how did it come to pass that the commission should deny completely
the presence of intentional signals, while, as regards the unintended,
it excluded only those which were of the known sort? The report clearly
shows that the decision as to the absence of voluntary signals was
based not merely upon the fact that no such signals had been detected by
the most expert observers, but also upon the character of the two men
who exhibited the horse, upon their behavior during the entire period,
and upon the method of instruction which Mr. von Osten had employed. In
the case of unintentional signs, on the other hand, one had to deal with
the fact with which physiologists and experimental psychologists are
especially familiar, viz., that our conscious states, without our
willing it--indeed, even in spite of us--are accompanied by bodily
changes which very often can be detected only by the use of extremely
fine graphic methods. The following is a more general instance: every
mother, who detects the lie or divin