counties were attended by representatives of the third
estate as early as the thirteenth century.

In the sixteenth century a number of these small provinces rebelled
against their king, abjured his majesty in a solemn meeting of the
"Estates General," removed the clergy from the discussions, broke
the power of the nobles and assumed full executive authority over the
newly-established Republic of the United Seven Netherlands. For two
centuries, the representatives of the town-councils ruled the country
without a king, without bishops and without noblemen. The city had
become supreme and the good burghers had become the rulers of the land.

THE MEDIAEVAL WORLD

WHAT THE PEOPLE OF THE MIDDLE AGES THOUGHT OF THE WORLD IN WHICH THEY
HAPPENED TO LIVE

DATES are a very useful invention. We could not do without them but
unless we are very careful, they will play tricks with us. They are
apt to make history too precise. For example, when I talk of the
point-of-view of mediaeval man, I do not mean that on the 31st of
December of the year 476, suddenly all the people of Europe said, "Ah,
now the Roman Empire has come to an end and we are living in the Middle
Ages. How interesting!"

You could have found men at the Frankish court of Charlemagne who were
Romans in their habits, in their manners, in their out-look upon life.
On the other hand, when you grow up you will discover that some of the
people in this world have never passed beyond the stage of the cave-man.
All times and all ages overlap, and the ideas of succeeding generations
play tag with each other. But it is possible to study the minds of a
good many true representatives of the Middle Ages and then give you an
idea of the average man's attitude toward life and the many difficult
problems of living.

First of all, remember that the people of the Middle Ages never thought
of themselves as free-born citizens, who could come and go at will and
shape their fate according to their ability or energy or luck. On the
contrary, they all considered themselves part of the general scheme of
things, which included emperors and serfs, popes and heretics, heroes
and swashbucklers, rich men, poor men, beggar men and thieves. They
accepted this divine ordinance and asked no questions. In this, of
course, they differed radically from modern people who accept nothing
and who are forever trying to improve their own financial and political
situation.

To the man and woman o