Where the cradle could be placed only a very short time before
it had to take the weight of the shield, the case was quite different.
The shield had a tendency to settle at the cutting edge, and when once
pointed downward it was extremely difficult to change its direction. It
was generally accomplished by embedding railroad rails or heavy oak
plank in the cradle on solid foundation. This often had to be repeated
several times before it was successful. In soft ground it was much
easier to change the direction of the shield, but, owing to the varying
nature of the material, it was sometimes impossible to determine in
advance how the shield should be pointed. It was found by experience at
Manhattan that the iron lining remained in the best position in relation
to grade when the underside of the bottom of the shield at the rear end
was driven on grade of the bottom of the iron, but if the rate of
progress was slow, it was better to drive the shield a little higher.

In the headings from Long Island, which, as a rule, were in soft ground,
the cutting edges of the shields were kept from 4 to 8 in. higher, with
respect to the grade line, than the rails. The shields would then
usually move parallel to the grade line, though this was modified
considerably by the way the mucking was done and by the stiffness of the
ground at the bottom of the shield.

On the average, the shields were shoved by from ten to twelve of the
bottom jacks, with a pressure of about 4,000 lb. per sq. in. The jacks
had 9-in. plungers, which made the average total force required to shove
the shield 2,800,000 lb. In the soft ground, where shutters were used,
all of the twenty-seven jacks were frequently used, and on several
occasions the pressure exceeded 6,000 lb. per sq. in. With a unit
pressure of 6,000 lb. per sq. in., the total pressure on the shield with
all twenty-seven jacks in operation was 5,154 tons.

INJURIES TO SHIELDS.

There were only two instances of damage to the essential structural
features of the shields. The most serious was in Tunnel _D_ where the
cutting edge at the bottom of the shield was forced up a slightly
sloping ledge of rock. A bow was formed in the steel casting which was
markedly increased with the next few shoves. Work was suspended, and a
heavy cast-steel patch, filling out the bow, was attached to the bent
segments, as shown in Fig. 2, Plate LXXIII. No further trouble was
experienced with the deformed portion. The oth