he office of superintendent and many others dependent upon it being
abolished the supreme control of the finances was vested in a royal
council. The sovereign was its president; but Colbert, though for four
years he only possessed the title of intendant, was its ruling spirit,
great personal authority being conferred upon him by the king. The
career on which Colbert now entered must not be judged without constant
remembrance of the utter rottenness of the previous financial
administration. His ruthlessness in this case, dangerous precedent as it
was, was perhaps necessary; individual interests could not be respected.
Guilty officials having been severely punished, the fraudulent creditors
of the government remained to be dealt with. Colbert's method was
simple. Some of the public loans were totally repudiated, and from
others a percentage was cut off, which varied, at first according to his
own decision, and afterwards according to that of the council which he
established to examine all claims against the state.

Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce equality in
the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To diminish the number
of the privileged was impossible, but false claims to exemption were
firmly resisted, and the unjust direct taxation was lightened by an
increase of the indirect taxes, from which the privileged could not
escape. The mode of collection was at the same time immensely improved.

Order and economy being thus introduced into the working of the
government, the country, according to Colbert's vast yet detailed plan,
was to be enriched by commerce. Manufactures were fostered in every way
he could devise. New industries were established, inventors protected,
workmen invited from foreign countries, French workmen absolutely
prohibited to emigrate. To maintain the character of French goods in
foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home consumer,
the quality and measure of each article were fixed by law, breach of the
regulations being punished by public exposure of the delinquent and
destruction of the goods, and, on the third offence, by the pillory. But
whatever advantage resulted from this rule was more than compensated by
the disadvantages it entailed. The production of qualities which would
have suited many purposes of consumption was prohibited, and the odious
supervision which became necessary involved great waste of time and a
stereotyped regularity wh