r
observation, began at the age of six to show violent irritation at the
slightest reproof or correction. If he was able to strike the person who
had annoyed him, his rage cooled immediately; if not, he would scream
incessantly and bite his hands with gestures similar to those often
witnessed in caged bears who have been teased and cannot retaliate.

The above cases show that the desire for revenge is extremely common and
precocious in children. Anger is an elementary instinct innate in human
beings. It should be guided and restrained, but can never be extirpated.

Children are quite devoid of moral sense during the first months or
first years of their existence. Good and evil in their estimation are
what is allowed and what is forbidden by their elders, but they are
incapable of judging independently of the moral value of an action.

"Lying and disobedience are very wrong," said a boy to Perez, "because
they displease mother." Everything he was accustomed to was right and
necessary.

A child does not grasp abstract ideas of justice, or the rights of
property, until he has been deprived of some possession. He is prone to
detest injustice, especially when he is the victim. Injustice, in his
estimation, is the discord between a habitual mode of treatment and an
accidental one. When subjected to altered conditions, he shows complete
uncertainty. A child placed under Perez's care modified his ways
according to each new arrival. He began ordering his companions about
and refused to obey any one but Perez.

Affection is very slightly developed in children. Their fancy is easily
caught by a pleasing exterior or by anything that contributes to their
amusement; like domestic animals that they enjoy teasing and pulling
about, and they exhibit great antipathy to unfamiliar objects that
inspire them with fear. Up to the age of seven or even after, they show
very little real attachment to anybody. Even their mothers, whom they
appear to love, are speedily forgotten after a short separation.

In conclusion, children manifest a great many of the impulses we have
observed in criminals; anger, a spirit of revenge, idleness, volubility
and lack of affection.

We have also pointed out that many actions considered criminal in
civilised communities, are normal and legitimate practices among
primitive races. It is evident, therefore, that such actions are natural
to the early stages, both of social evolution and individual psychic
de