encourage an abuse of alcohol; others like bakers, have night work,
which is equally harmful. Professions which bring poor men, servants,
secretaries, cashiers, etc., into close contact with wealth, are
sometimes the cause of dishonesty in those who in the absence of special
temptations, would have remained upright; others provide criminaloids
with opportunities or instruments for accomplishing some crime, as in
the case of locksmiths, blacksmiths, soldiers, doctors, lawyers, etc.

The time of the year and other circumstances under which the crime takes
place should be elicited, and it should be borne in mind that the
vintage season in countries of Southern Europe and extremes of heat and
cold are favourable to seizures of an epileptic nature.

When the subject under examination is a recidivist, care should be taken
to ascertain at what age and under what circumstances the initial
offence was committed. Precocity in crime is a characteristic of born
criminals, and puberty and senility have their peculiar offences, as
have the extremes of poverty and wealth.

_Intelligence._ As we are not dealing with an ordinary patient, who is
generally only too ready to talk about his troubles, but with an
individual who has been put on his guard by constant cross-examination,
his suspicions should first of all be allayed by a series of general
questions on his native place or the town in which he is now living, his
trade, etc. "Why did you leave your native town? Why do you not return?
Are you married? How many children have you?" etc. Then an attempt
should be made to gain an idea of his intellectual powers by asking easy
questions: "How many shillings are there in a pound? How many hours are
there in a day? In what year were you married?" etc.

_Affection._ The affections should be tested in an indirect way. "Is
your father a bad man?" or "Are your neighbours worthless people? Do
they treat you with due respect? Has any one a spite against you? Are
you fond of your parents? Are you aware that your brother (or mother) is
seriously ill?" Questions concerning relatives and friends are of
special interest, because they enable the examiner to ascertain whether
they cause the patient emotion of any kind, whether he has any real
affection for those beings to whom normal persons are attached, but
towards whom born criminals and the insane in general do not manifest
love. In the absence of instruments, we must judge of the feelings of