partly by its own hand, because of its arrogance, but mainly from the
fact that, having educated western Europe to self-government and
commercial independence, there was no longer need for its existence.
Independent cities grew rapidly into importance, and these got along
very well without the protection of the League. The great industrial
progress was at times temporarily checked by wars, but it never took a
backward step. Indeed the progress of commerce has always been a contest
between brains and brute force, and in such a struggle there is never
any doubt about the final outcome.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

What were some of the effects of Caesar's invasion of Germanic Europe so
far as commerce is concerned?

What were some of the effects on commerce of the breaking up of the
Roman Empire?

How did the invasion of England by William of Normandy affect the
commerce of the English people?

Who was Henry the Navigator, and what did he accomplish?

How did the blockade of the routes between Europe and India bring about
the discovery of America?

What was the result of the great voyage of the Cabots?

Was the overthrow of feudalism in Europe a gain or a loss to commerce?

Why are not commercial leagues, such as the Hanse, necessary at the
present time?

Why did Spain's commerce decline as Portugal's thrived?

COLLATERAL READING[6]

Gibbins's History of Commerce--Chapters IV-V.

Fiske's Discovery of America, Vol. 1--Chapters IV-V.

CHAPTER III

TOPOGRAPHIC CONTROL OF COMMERCE

The great industry of commerce, which includes both the trade in the
commodities of life and the transportation of them, is governed very
largely by the character of the earth's surface. But very few
food-stuffs can be grown economically in mountain-regions. Steep
mountain-slopes are apt to be destitute of soil; moreover, even the
mountain-valleys are apt to be difficult of access, and in such cases
the cost of moving the crops may be greater than the market value of the
products. Mountainous countries, therefore, are apt to be sparsely
peopled regions.

But although the great mountain-systems are unhabitable, or at least
sparsely peopled, they have a very definite place in the economics of
life. Thus, the great western highland of the United States diverts the
flow of moisture from the Gulf of Mexico northward into the central
plain, and gives to the region most of its food-growing power. In a
similar manner, moi