ed _rudes_, or
with blunted weapons; but when warmed and inspirited by the pretense
of battle, they changed their weapons, and advanced at the sound of
trumpets to the real strife. The conquered looked to the people or to
the emperor for life; his antagonist had no power to grant or to
refuse it; but if the spectators were dissatisfied and gave the signal
of death, he was obliged to become the executioner of their will. This
signal was the turning down the thumbs; as is well known. If any
showed signs of fear, their death was certain; if on the other hand
they waited the fatal stroke with intrepidity, the people generally
relented. But fear and want of spirit were of very rare occurrence,
insomuch that Cicero more than once proposed the principle of honor
which actuated gladiators as an admirable model of constancy and
courage, by which he intended to animate himself and others to suffer
everything in defence of the commonwealth.

The bodies of the slain were dragged with a hook or on a cart through
a gate called Libitinensis, the Gate of Death. The victor was rewarded
with a sum of money, contributed by the spectators or bestowed from
the treasury, or a palm-branch, or a garland of palm ornamented with
colored ribbons--ensigns of frequent occurrence in ancient monuments.
Those who survived three years were released from this service, and
sometimes one who had given great satisfaction was enfranchised on the
spot. This was done by presenting the staff (_rudis_) which was used
in preluding to the combat; on receiving which, the gladiator, if a
freeman, recovered his liberty; if a slave, he was not made free, but
was released from the obligation of venturing his life any further in
the arena.

Gladiators were divided, according to the fashion of their armor and
offensive weapons, into classes, known by the names of Thrax, Samnis,
Myrmillo, and many others, of which a mere catalogue would be tedious,
and it would be the work of a treatise to ascertain and describe their
distinctive marks.

Another group consists of four figures. Two are _secutores_,
followers, the other two, _retiarii_, net men, armed only with a
trident and net, with which they endeavored to entangle their
adversary, and then dispatch him. These classes, like the Thrax and
Myrmillo, were usual antagonists, and had their name from the secutor
following the retiarius, who eluded the pursuit until he found an
opportunity to throw his net to advantage. Ne