perties whereby they are _popularly_ (though the evidence is very
deficient) supposed to excite sensations; 4, the relations of Succession
and Coexistence, Likeness and Unlikeness, which subsist really only
between states of consciousness.

These four classes are a substitute for Aristotle's abortive Categories.
As they comprise all nameable things, every fact is made up of them or
some of them; those that are called _subjective_ facts being composed
wholly of feelings as such, and the _objective_ facts, though composed
wholly or partly of substances and attributes, being grounded on
corresponding subjective facts.

CHAPTER IV.

PROPOSITIONS.

The copula is a mere sign of predication, though it is often confounded
with _to be_, the verb of existence (and that not merely by Greeks, but
even by moderns, whose larger experience how one word in one language
often answers to several in another, should have saved them from
thinking that things with a common name must have a common nature). The
_first_ division of propositions is into Affirmative and Negative, the
copula in the latter being _is not_. Hobbes and others, by joining the
_not_ to the predicate, made the latter what they call a _negative
name_. But as a negative name is one expressing the _absence_ of an
attribute, we thus in fact merely deny its presence, and therefore the
affirmative guise these thinkers give to negative propositions is only a
fiction. Again, _modal_ propositions cannot be reduced to the common
form by joining the modality to the predicate, and turning, e.g. The sun
_did_ rise, into, The sun is a thing having risen; for the past time is
not a particular kind of rising, and it affects not the predicate, but
the predication, i.e. the applicability of the predicate to the subject.
There are, however, certain cases in which the qualification may be
detached from the copula; e.g. in such expressions as, _may be_, _is
perhaps_; for, then we really do not mean to assert anything about the
fact, but only about the state of our mind about it, so that it is not
the predication which is affected: e.g. Caesar _may be_ dead, may
properly be rendered, I am not sure that he is alive.

The _second_ division is into Simple and Complex. Several propositions
joined by a conjunction do not make a complex proposition. The
conjunction, so far from making the two one, adds another, as being an
abbreviation generally of an additional proposition: e.g. _and_