whose letters had been opened, and were produced
in Parliament to justify the bill of "pains and penalties" which was
passed against him. The power had been confined to Great Britain till
the latter part of the last century, when it was judged desirable to
extend it also to the Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. But, since the Peace
of Amiens, the number of letters opened in a year had not, on an
average, exceeded eight; nor was there the least ground for suspecting
that a single one had been opened except on such information as fully
warranted suspicion.

The practice, however, was not confined to our own government. In the
second volume of the "Life of Bishop Wilberforce" a page is given of his
diary, dated July 18, 1854, which records a conversation in which the
Duke of Newcastle and Lord John Russell took part, and in which it is
mentioned that the French government, under the administration of M.
Guizot, opened letters, and that the practice was not confined to
monarchical or absolute governments, for "the American government opens
most freely all letters." And, with reference to this particular case,
the Duke of Newcastle said that "Sir James Graham really opened
Mazzini's letters on information which led to a belief that a great act
of violence and bloodshed might be prevented by it."--_Life of Bishop
Wilberforce_, ii., 247.]

[Footnote 265: A subsequent act, passed since the date at which the
present history closes, has repealed even this exception. By the 33d
Victoria, c. 14 ("Law Reports," p. 169), it is enacted that "an alien,
to whom a certificate of naturalization is granted, shall in the United
Kingdom be entitled to all political and other rights, powers, and
privileges, and be subject to all obligations to which a natural born
British subject is entitled as subject in the United Kingdom," etc.; and
at the general election of 1880 the Baron de Ferrieres, a Belgian
nobleman, who had been naturalized in 1867, was elected M.P. for
Cheltenham.]

[Footnote 266: In one instance--on the question whether twelve should be
the number of hours, as proposed by the Government--the majority against
that number was 186 to 183. But immediately afterward a majority of 188
to 184 decided against Lord Ashley's alternative proposal of ten hours.]

[Footnote 267: As President of the Board of Trade. He afterward was
raised to the Peerage as Lord Taunton.]

[Footnote 268: The second reading was carried in the House of Lords by