gh a rack and pinion mechanism. According
to Leypoldt, this scarificator was more convenient, more portable,
cheaper, safer, and more reliable than the common scarificator.[152]
Leypoldt probably marketed his scarificators, there being in the
Smithsonian collection other bloodletting instruments with his name, but
he did not form a major surgical supply company as did George Tiemann.

[Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Advertisement for phlebotomy and cupping
instruments. Note the rubber cups. (From George Tiemann & Co., _American
Armamentarium Chirurgicum_, New York, 1889. SI photo 76-13542.)]

After 1860, interest in inventing new scarificators declined as wet
cupping decreased in popularity. The improved cups and scarificators,
while they had achieved a limited success, had still failed to supplant
the common octagonal scarificator and the plain glass cup. As interest in
wet cupping declined, medical attention shifted to the therapeutic virtues
of dry cupping. Dry cupping offered even greater opportunities for
inventors, who sought means to bring the effects of the vacuum to more
areas of the body for greater lengths of time.

_Dry Cupping_

Dry cupping, in its simplest form, was said to act as a "revulsive" or
"derivant." By the nineteenth century these once hotly debated terms had
become nearly interchangeable in discussions of cupping. In cupping for
revulsive purposes, one cupped on a distant part to relieve excess of
blood in the affected part. In applying cupping as a "derivant," one
cupped closer to the affected part. In either case, the source of pain was
presumed to be somewhere below the skin, and the pain was relieved by
bringing blood away from the affected part to the surface of the body.
Thus, one nineteenth-century cupper concluded, revulsion was only
derivation at a distant point.[153]

If dry cupping was applied for ten minutes or longer so that the
capillaries burst, the action of the cups was said to be that of a
counter-irritant. According to ancient medical theory, the
counter-irritant was a means of relieving an affected part by deliberately
setting up a secondary inflammation or a running sore in another part.
Counter-irritations were traditionally produced in a number of ways, among
them, blisters, cautery, setons, moxa, and dry cupping.[154]

One of the most popular counter-irritation devices commonly associated
with cupping instruments in catalogs of surgical goods, was Baunscheidt's
_Le