be easily seen by all performers, the elbow being kept well
away from the body, almost level with the shoulder. The elevation of
the baton, of course, depends upon the size of the group being
conducted, upon the manner in which the performers are arranged, and
upon whether they are sitting or standing. The conductor will
accordingly vary its position according to the exigencies of the
occasion, always remembering that a beat that cannot be easily seen
will not be readily followed.

[Sidenote: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TIME BEATING]

If one observes the work of a number of conductors, it soon becomes
evident that, although at first they appear to have absolutely
different methods, there are nevertheless certain fundamental
underlying principles in accordance with which each beats time, and it
is these general principles that we are to deal with in the remainder
of this chapter. It should be noted that _principles_ rather than
_methods_ are to be discussed, since principles are universal, while
methods are individual and usually only local in their application.

[Sidenote: DIAGRAMS OF BATON MOVEMENTS]

The general direction of the baton movements now in universal use is
shown in the following figures.

[Illustration]

In actual practice however, the baton moves from point to point in a
very much more complex fashion, and in order to aid the learner still
further in his analysis of time beating an elaborated version of the
foregoing figures is supplied. It is of course understood that such
diagrams are of value only in giving a general idea of these more
complex movements and that they are not to be followed minutely.

[Illustration: TWO-BEAT MEASURE]

[Illustration: THREE-BEAT MEASURE]

[Illustration: FOUR-BEAT MEASURE]

[Illustration: SIX-BEAT MEASURE]

[Illustration: VERY SLOW TWO-BEAT MEASURE]

[Illustration: VERY SLOW THREE-BEAT MEASURE]

[Illustration: SLOW FOUR-BEAT MEASURE]

[Illustration: SLOW NINE-BEAT MEASURE]

[Illustration: SLOW TWELVE-BEAT MEASURE]

An examination of these figures will show that all baton movements are
based upon four general principles:

1. The strongest pulse of a measure (the first one) is
always marked by a down-beat. This principle is merely a
specific application of the general fact that a downward
stroke is stronger than an upward one (_cf._ driving a
nail).

2. The last pulse of a measure is always marked by an
up-beat, sinc