so in 1386 into an informal union with the
Polish empire which, in 1569, in spite of Ukrainian protests, was made
definite, and lasted until 1648.

In that year the whole Ukrainian people rose, under the leadership of
Bohdan Khmelnitsky, and put an end to this union, which was
incompatible with their interests and with their type of civilization.
Then, anticipating further Polish efforts to destroy the newly won
independence of Ukraine, and menaced by other foes, particularly the
Turks, then the strongest military power in eastern Europe, the
Ukrainians concluded an agreement of confederation with the Czar of
Muscovy in 1654. It is interesting to recall that Khmelnitsky was
expressly advised against this step by Oliver Cromwell, who declared
that the Czar would never permanently recognize a free people.

The most important clauses in the treaty of 1654 guaranteed a freely
chosen supreme head for the Ukrainian state, called a "hetman"; the
right to engage in diplomatic relations with other states, except
Poland and Turkey, when the cognizance of the Czar was necessary; free
trade with all foreign nations; the complete independence of the
judicial system; the right to choose a leader for the army, over whom
the "hetman" had supreme control; and, lastly, the independence of the
Ukrainian Church.

Muscovy did not live up to these terms, and the result was a succession
of Ukrainian uprisings, directed now against Russia just as they had
formerly been aimed at Poland. In the last quarter of the seventeenth
century, Russia and Poland made common cause and partitioned Ukraine,
making the Dnieper the frontier between their two empires. The most
important rebellion against this last measure was that led by Mazeppa
in 1709, which was quelled by Peter the Great. After the time of
Mazeppa, Russia's policy of repression was pursued openly and
ruthlessly. Peter instituted a supervision over the autonomous
Ukrainian administration, vesting authority in Muscovite officers,
through whose hands passed everything pertaining to the hetman's
chancellery. In 1722 the power of the hetmans was cut down to nothing.
In 1764 Catherine II. abolished the office altogether.

Meanwhile, in order to assure possession of Ukraine, the Russian
government was making every effort to assimilate the Ukrainian people.
One step toward accomplishing this was the suppression of Ukrainian
literature. In 1720 a special censorship over the publication of
Ukrain