vileged orders were
exempt, though they were forced to contribute {480} special sums levied
by themselves. The general property tax (taille) in France yielded
2,400,000 livres tournois in 1517 and 4,600,000 in 1543. The taxes
were farmed; that is, the right of collecting them was sold at auction,
with the natural result that they were put into the hands of
extortioners who made vast fortunes by oppressing the people. Revenues
of the royal domain, excises on salt and other articles, import and
export duties, and the sale of offices and monopolies, supplemented the
direct taxes. The system of taxation varied in each country. Thus in
Spain the 10 per cent. tax on the price of an article every time it was
sold and the royalty on precious metals--20 per cent. after
1504--proved important sources of revenue. Rome drove a lucrative
trade in spiritual wares. Everywhere, fines for transgressions of the
law figured more largely as a source of revenue than they do nowadays.

[Sidenote: Wasteful expenditures]

Expenditures were both more wasteful and more niggardly than they are
today. Though the service of the public debt was trifling compared
with modern standards, and though the administration of justice was not
expensive because of the fee system, the army and navy cost a good
deal, partly because they were composed largely of well paid
mercenaries. The personal extravagances of the court were among the
heaviest burdens borne by the people. The kings built palaces: they
wallowed in cloth of gold; they collected objects of art; they
squandered fortunes on mistresses and minions; they made constant
progresses with a retinue of thousands of servants and horses. The two
greatest states, France and Spain, both went into bankruptcy in 1557.

[Sidenote: Public order]

The great task of government, that of keeping public order, protecting
life and property and punishing the criminal, was approached by our
forbears with more gusto than success. The laws were terrible, but
they {481} were unequally executed. In England among capital crimes
were the following: murder, arson, escape from prison, hunting by night
with painted faces or visors, embezzling property worth more than 40
shillings, carrying horses or mares into Scotland, conjuring,
practising witchcraft, removing landmarks, desertion from the army,
counterfeiting or mutilating coins, cattle-lifting, house-breaking,
picking of pockets. All these were punished by h