sions from the
north which brought with them a mixed culture containing Hellenic,
Persian and other elements. During some centuries India, as a political
region, was not delimitated on the north-western side as it is at
present and numerous principalities rose and fell which included Indian
territory as well as parts of Afghanistan.

These states were of at least three classes, Hellenistic, Persian or
Parthian, and Scythian, if that word can be properly used to include the
Sakas and Kushans.

Bactria was a Persian satrapy before Alexander's invasion but when he
passed through it on his way to India he founded twelve cities and
settled a considerable number of his soldiers in them. It formed part of
the Empire of Seleucus but declared itself independent in 250 B.C. about
the same time that the Parthians revolted and founded the Empire of the
Arsacidae. The Bactrian kings bore Greek names and in 209 Antiochus III
made peace with one of them called Euthydemus, in common cause against
the nomads who threatened Western Asia. Demetrius, the son of this
Euthydemus, appears to have conquered Kabul, the Panjab and Sind (c. 190
B.C.) but his reign was troubled by the rebellion of a certain
Eukratides and it is probable that many small and contending
frontier-states, of which we have a confused record, were ruled by the
relatives of one or other of these two princes. The most important of
them was Menander, apparently king of the Kabul valley. About 155 he
made an incursion to the east, occupied Muttra and threatened
Pataliputra itself but was repulsed. He is celebrated in Buddhist
literature as the hero of the Questions of Milinda but his coins, though
showing some Buddhist emblems, indicate that he was also a worshipper of
Pallas. Shortly after this Hellenic influence in Bactria was overwhelmed
by the invasion of the Yueeh-chih, though the Greek principalities in the
Panjab may have lasted considerably longer.

In the reign of Mithridates (c. 171-138 B.C.) the Parthian Empire was
limitrophe with India and possibly his authority extended beyond the
Indus. A little later the Parthian dependencies included two satrapies,
Aracosia and the western Panjab with capitals at Kandahar and Taxila
respectively. In the latter ruled kings or viceroys one of whom called
Gondophores (c. 20 A.D.) is celebrated on account of his legendary
connection with the Apostle Thomas.

More important for the history of India were the conquests of the Sa