The Germanic Goths were followed by Slavs and Avars, and not
until the Bulgars overran the area in the seventh century was a
semblance of civic order established. The region developed a rudimentary
form of cultural life, and Christianity in the Eastern Orthodox form was
introduced after the conversion of the Bulgar Tsar Boris in 864. The
Bulgars were eventually displaced by Hungarians who, in turn, gave way
to Asiatic Tatars, all of whom left limited, but lasting, influences on
the land and its inhabitants.

FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPALITIES

Walachia and Moldavia

As the threats of invasion diminished, the Vlachs gradually moved
farther into the foothills and plains of the Danube basin and fused with
a population that, while retaining a small Vlach element, had by then
acquired a heavy mixture of Slavs and Tatars. Two distinct groups
eventually emerged, one settling in the area now known as Walachia and
the other settling farther to the east and north in Moldavia. The
earliest events surrounding the development of these areas are not
known, but after a period of colonization the two regions emerged, in
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, respectively, as the
semi-independent principalities of Walachia and Moldavia.

When the Ottoman Empire overran southeastern Europe in the fifteenth
century, these Danubian principalities were forced to accept Turkish
suzerainty and remained Turkish dependencies until the middle of the
nineteenth century. Unlike other areas under Turkish rule, the Romanian
principalities were controlled by native princes, who maintained their
position through concessions to the nobles, from among whom they had
gained preeminence, and through the concurrence of the Turks, to whom a
substantial annual tribute was paid. This system of political control
led to intrigues and a long succession of rulers who, assisted by the
nobles, systematically exploited the peasantry, from whom the heavy
annual tribute was collected.

Continued misrule and long-term economic exploitation of the regions
seriously affected the social structure within the principalities. The
lesser nobility, including the landed gentry, was reduced to the level
of free peasants; the peasantry itself was placed in virtually complete
serfdom; and cultural activity became almost nonexistent. Even the
appearance of outstanding political and military leaders, such as
Michael the Brave of Walachia (1593-1601) and Stephen the Great, prin