for industrial leadership which the wage earner does not
receive. Indeed, with the ever increasing complexity of the problems of
business enterprise, prolonged education, itself, has become of more
importance in determining individual chances of success. All these
developments have greatly lessened the chances of the ordinary wage
earner for any position of ownership or control. They have tended to
separate the wage earners from the groups controlling industry; they
have taken away in a large measure the inspiration which work receives
from hopes of steady advancement. When that hope is gone only the hope
for high wages is left, and that is not a sufficiently potent common aim
to insure the cooperation required for so complex an activity as modern
industry.

Simultaneously with the revolution in industrial structure and
interacting with it in many ways, there has occurred a great change in
the composition and character of the wage-earning body. The change that
occurred between 1870 and 1910 in the sources of the immigration which
has furnished the United States with the bulk of its supply of unskilled
and semi-skilled labor, is a commonplace of American industrial history.
The effects of this change have been largely governed by other
industrial events, chief among which may be put the increased
concentration of industry in and around a relatively small number of
cities or regions. For as Mr. Chapin in his study of the sources of
urban increase has stated: "Immigration has been the chief source of
urban increase in the United States during the past quarter of a
century."[4]

There has assembled in each of our great cities a mass of workers, many
of whom are of recent alien origin, quickly habituated to the routine of
existence in crowded city streets and busy factories. The interchange of
opinion and of sympathy between these lowest grades of industrial
workers and the rest of the community is very imperfect. Their
industrial position and outlook tends to be that of a separate class. As
a rule, they are unorganized. It is of these grades of labor that Prof.
Marshall has written "Some of these indeed rise; for instance,
particular departments of some steel works are so fully manned by Slavs,
that they are beginning efficiently to take the place of Irish and
others who have hitherto acted as foremen: while large numbers of them
are to be found in relatively light, but monotonous work in large
cities. They may lack the r