he title "father," it belongs of course to
the object from which a clan is supposed to be descended.

+579+. The sacramental eating of the totem, where such a custom exists,
involves a certain identity of nature of totem and clan god, but the two
are regarded as distinct--their distinctness is, indeed, a necessary
condition of the sacrificial efficacy of the totem as a means of
placating the deity.[932]

+580+. Our review seems, thus, to lead to the conclusion that there is
no good ground for the opinion that a totem has ever grown into a god.
The question, belonging, as it does, to a period for which we have no
contemporary records, must be admitted to be difficult, and answers to
it must be of the nature of hypotheses; but gods and spirits appear to
have taken shape through processes of thought different from those that
lie at the basis of totemism.[933]

TABOO

+581+. So far we have been considering the growth of the simpler
religious ideas and the parallel development of a quasi-religious social
organization. The ethical development is no less important than the
religious and the political, with which it has always been closely
connected. Ethical ideas and customs are in their origin independent of
religion. Religion deals with the relation between human beings and
supernatural Powers; ethics has to do with the relation between man and
man.[934]

+582+. Thus, the necessity for the protection of life and property
(including wives and children) has produced certain rules of conduct,
which are at first handed on orally and maintained by custom, and
gradually are formulated in written codes. The protection of the tribal
life is secured by the tribal leaders as representatives of society. The
protection of individual interests is at first in the hands of the
individuals concerned, but always under the sanction of society. The
murderer, the thief, and the adulterer are dealt with by the person
injured or by his clan or family, in accordance with generally
recognized regulations. As social life becomes more elaborate, such
regulations become more numerous and more discriminating; every new
ethical rule springs from the necessity of providing for some new social
situation. In all communities the tendency is toward taking the
protection of interests out of the hands of the individual and
committing it to the community; this course is held to be for the
advantage of society.[935]

+583+. As men are constituted, to a