uth America has been mainly with Europe. There has,
therefore, been little rivalry between the United States and the powers
of Europe in the field of South American commerce. Our interest has
been political rather than commercial. We have prevented the
establishment of spheres of influence and preserved the open door.
This situation has been in full accord with British policy. Had Great
Britain adopted a high tariff policy and been compelled to demand
commercial concessions from Latin America by force, the Monroe Doctrine
would long since have gone by the board and been forgotten. Americans
should not forget the fact, moreover, that at any time during the past
twenty years Great Britain could have settled all her outstanding
difficulties with Germany by agreeing to sacrifice the Monroe Doctrine
and give her rival a free hand in South America. In the face of such a
combination our navy would have been of little avail.

IV

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION WITHOUT THE SANCTION OF FORCE

President Monroe's declaration had a negative as well as a positive
side. It was in effect an announcement to the world that we would not
use force in support of law and justice anywhere except in the Western
Hemisphere, that we intended to stay at home and mind our own business.
Washington and Jefferson had recommended a policy of isolation on
grounds of expediency. Washington, as we have seen, regarded this
policy as a temporary expedient, while Jefferson upon two separate
occasions was ready to form an alliance with England. Probably neither
one of them contemplated the possibility of the United States shirking
its responsibilities as a member of the family of nations. Monroe's
message contained the implied promise that if Europe would refrain from
interfering in the political concerns of this hemisphere, we would
abstain from all intervention in Europe. From that day until our
entrance into the World War it was generally understood, and on
numerous occasions officially proclaimed, that the United States would
not resort to force on any question arising outside of America except
where its material interests were directly involved. We have not
refrained from diplomatic action in matters not strictly American, but
it has always been understood that such action would not be backed by
force. In the existing state of world politics this limitation has
been a serious handicap to American diplomacy. To take what we could
get an