stitution, not by transmutation."

Dr. Robert Watts uses these emphatic words: "The record of the rocks
know nothing of the evolution of a higher form from a lower form.
Neither the paleozoic age nor the living organisms of our world reveal
an authentic instance of such evolution. Both nature and revelation
proclaim it as an inviolable law that like produces like."

And Hugh Miller went one step further when he testified: "I would ask
such of the gentlemen whom I now address as have studied the subject
most thoroughly, whether, at those grand lines of division between the
Palaeozoic and Secondary, and again between the Secondary and Tertiary
periods, at which the entire type of organic being alters, so that all
on the one side of the gap belongs to one fashion, and all on the other
to another and wholly different fashion,--whether they have not been as
thoroughly impressed with the conviction that there existed a Creative
Agent, to whom the sudden change was owing, as if they themselves had
witnessed the miracle of creation?" (Presidential address before the
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, 1852.)

But we have not yet done with this part of our investigation. The
argument from geology is based on the assumption that the chronological
order of the earth's layers _has been determined_ at least with great
approximation to certainty, so that we may say with some assurance that
this layer of limestone or sandstone is of earlier, that, of later
origin. As a matter of fact, the textbooks do treat the various "ages"
of geology as if they corresponded to certain strata of the earth's
crust. _But by what method is the age of the various layers determined?_
James D. Dana in his "Manual of Geology" (Fourth edition, p. 398 f.)
says that there are four methods by which we may decide the relation of
one layer to another. The first is, naturally, the order in which the
layers rest upon one another; the lower strata, are, of course, older
than the upper. However, he points out in four "precautions" the
inability of the investigator to depend on this method, since "for the
comparing of rocks of disconnected regions, this criterion must fail."
Also the color and mineral composition can be used only "with distrust"
and must be "usually disregarded." Then the _Manual_ proceeds: "4
_Fossils_.--The criterion for determining the chronological order of
strata dependent on kinds of fossils takes direct hold upon time, and
therefore, _is t