d. In Cicero we
see how feeble and wavering a guide to life in a period of trouble
philosophy had become, and how one who wished to stand in the attitude
of chief thinker of his times was no more than a servile copyist of
Grecian predecessors, giving to his works not an air of masculine and
independent thought, but aiming at present effect rather than a solid
durability; for Cicero addresses himself more to the public than to
philosophers, exhibiting herein his professional tendency as an
advocate. Under a thin veil he hides an undisguised scepticism, and,
with the instinct of a placeman, leans rather to the investigation of
public concerns than to the profound and abstract topics of philosophy.
As is the case with superficial men, he sees no difference between the
speculative and the exact, confusing them together. He feels that it is
inexpedient to communicate truth publicly, especially that of a
religious kind. Doubtless herein we shall agree when we find that he
believes God to be nothing more than the soul of the world; discovers
many serious objections to the doctrine of Providence; insinuates that
the gods are only poetical creations; is uncertain whether the soul be
immortal, but is clear that popular doctrine of punishment in the world
to come is only an idle fable.

[Sidenote: Quintus Sextius. Seneca.]

[Sidenote: Epictetus. Antoninus.]

[Sidenote: Maximus Tyrius].

[Sidenote: Alexander of Aphrodisias.]

It was the attribute of the Romans to impress upon every thing a
practical character. In their philosophy we continually see this
displayed, along with a striking inferiority in original thought.
Quintus Sextius admonishes us to pursue a virtuous life, and, as an aid
thereto, enjoins an abstinence from meat. In this opinion many of the
Cynical school acquiesced, and some it is said, even joined the
Brahmans. In the troublous times of the first Caesars, men had occasion
to derive all the support they could from philosophy; there was no
religion to sustain them. Among the Stoics there were some, as Seneca,
to whom we can look back with pleasure. Through his writings he
exercised a considerable influence on subsequent ages, though, when we
attentively read his works, we must attribute this not so much to their
intrinsic value as to their happening to coincide with the prevalent
tone of religious thought. He enforces the necessity of a cultivation of
good morals, and yet he writes against the religion of his