she tried to strike a blow that there would never be
any occasion to repeat; no one was spared who by possibility might
inconvenience her; but, the catastrophe once over, as a general thing,
the vanquished had no occasion to complain of her rule. Of course, in
the shadow of public justice, private wrong and oppression were often
concealed. Through injustice and extortion, her officers accumulated
enormous fortunes, which have never since been equalled in Europe.
Sometimes the like occurred in times of public violence; thus Brutus
made Asia Minor pay five years' tribute at once, and shortly after
Antony compelled it to do it again. The extent to which recognized and
legitimate exactions were carried is shown by the fact that upon the
institution of the empire the annual revenues were about forty millions
of pounds sterling.

[Sidenote: Value of gold and silver.]

The comparative value of metals in Rome is a significant political
indication. Bullion rapidly increased in amount during the Carthaginian
wars. At the opening of the first Punic War silver and copper were as 1
to 960; at the second Punic War the ratio had fallen, and was 1 to 160;
soon after there was another fall, and it became 1 to 128. The republic
debased the coinage by reducing its weight, the empire by alloying it.

[Sidenote: Connexion between debasement of coinage and political
decline.]

The science, art, and political condition of nations are often
illustrated by their coinage. An interesting view of the progress of
Europe might be obtained from a philosophical study of its numismatic
remains. The simplicity of the earlier ages is indicated by the pure
silver, such as that coined at Crotona, B.C. 600--that of the reign of
Philip of Macedon by the native unalloyed gold. A gradual decline in
Roman prosperity is more than shadowed forth by the gradual
deterioration of its money; for, as evil times befell the state, the
emperors were compelled to utter a false coinage. Thus, under Vespasian,
A.D. 69, the silver money contained about one fourth of its weight of
copper; under Antoninus Pius, A.D. 138, more than one third; under
Commodus, A.D. 180, nearly one half; under Gordian, A.D. 236, there was
added to the silver more than twice its weight of copper. Nay, under
Gallienus, a coinage was issued of copper, tin and silver, in which the
first two metals exceed the last by more than two hundred times its
weight. It shows to what a hopeless condition the