d at 1,500,000. Estimates which have been made at
various other dates are given as follows (p. 2):

A.D. A.D.
1381 59,850,000 / 143,125,225
1412 66,377,000 1760--203,916,477
1580 60,692,000 1761 205,293,053
1662 21,068,000 1762 198,214,553
1668 25,386,209 1790 155,249,897
/ 23,312,200 / 307,467,200
1710 --27,241,129 1792- 333,000,000
1711 28,241,129 / 362,467,183
1736 125,046,245 1812--360,440,000
/ 157,343,975 1842 413,021,000
1743 149,332,730 1868 404,946,514
\ 150,265,475 1881 380,000,000
1753 103,050,600 1882 381,309,000
1885 377,636,000

These figures suffice to show how little is known about the population
of China. Not only are widely divergent estimates made in the same year
(_e.g._ 1760), but in other respects the figures are incredible. Mr.
Putnam Weale might contend that the drop from 60 millions in 1580 to 21
millions in 1662 was due to the wars leading to the Manchu conquest. But
no one can believe that between 1711 and 1736 the population increased
from 28 millions to 125 millions, or that it doubled between 1790 and
1792. No one knows whether the population of China is increasing or
diminishing, whether people in general have large or small families, or
any of the other facts that vital statistics are designed to elucidate.
What is said on these subjects, however dogmatic, is no more than
guess-work. Even the population of Peking is unknown. It is said to be
about 900,000, but it may be anywhere between 800,000 and a million. As
for the population of the Chinese Empire, it is probably safe to assume
that it is between three and four hundred millions, and somewhat likely
that it is below three hundred and fifty millions. Very little indeed
can be said with confidence as to the population of China in former
times; so little that, on the whole, authors who give statistics are to
be distrusted.

There are certain broad features of the traditional Chinese civilization
which give it its distinctive character. I should be inclined to select
as the most important: (1) The use of ideograms instead of an alphabet
in writing; (2) The substitution of the Confucian ethic for religion
among the educated classes; (3) government by literati chosen by
examination instead of by a hereditary aristocracy. The family system
distinguishe