ed in the time
of Clement VIII., A.D. 1592-1605, was fully developed under Alexander
VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of the year 1878 by
Leo XIII.

Merovingian chancery.

Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as ninety
authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven are originals,
the earliest being of the year 625. The most ancient examples were
written on papyrus, vellum superseding that material towards the end of
the 7th century. All these diplomas are technically letters, having the
superscription and address and, at the foot, close to the seal, the
valedictory _benevalete_. They commence with a monogrammatic invocation,
which, together with the superscription and address written in fanciful
elongated letters, occupies the first line. The superscription always
runs in the form, _N. rex Francorum_. The most complete kinds of
diplomas were authenticated by the king's subscription, that of the
_referendarius_ (the official charged with the custody of the royal
seal), the impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of
prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was usually
autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too illiterate to
write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The referendary, if he
countersigned the royal subscription, added the word _optulit_ to his
own signature; if he subscribed independently, he wrote _recognovit et
subscripsit_, the end of the last word being usually lost in flourishes
forming a _ruche_. The date gave the place, day, month and year of the
reign. The Merovingian royal diplomas are of two classes: (1) Precepts,
conferring gifts, favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the
documents themselves as _praeceptum_, _praeceptio_, _auctoritas_; some
drawn up in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others
less precise and formal. (2) Judgments (_judicia_), which required no
preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign's
judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and were
sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were the _cartae
de mundeburde_, taking persons under the royal protection, and
_indiculi_ or letters transmitting orders or notifying decisions; but no
examples have survived.

Carolingian chancery.

The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural, but
little from those of their predecessors. As mayors