tive of Germany
in 1906. Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Rumania,
Russia, Servia and Switzerland, were parties to them. Their object and
effect was protectionist. The British policy then became one of
obtaining modifications to remedy disadvantages to British trade, as was
done in the case of Bulgaria and Rumania. An important series of
commercial arrangements had been concluded between 1884 and 1900
respecting the territories and spheres of interest of European powers in
western, central and eastern Africa. In these regions exclusive
privileges were not claimed; most favoured nation treatment was
recognized, and there was a disposition to extend national treatment to
all Europeans and their trade.

The Turkish _Capitulations_ (q.v.) are grants made by successive sultans
to Christian nations, conferring rights and privileges in favour of
their subjects resident or trading in the Ottoman dominions, following
the policy towards European states of the Eastern empire. In the first
instance capitulations were granted separately to each Christian state,
beginning with the Genoese in 1453, which entered into pacific relations
with Turkey. Afterwards new capitulations were obtained which summed up
in one document earlier concessions, and added to them in general terms
whatever had been conceded to one or more other states; a stipulation
which became a most favoured nation article. The English capitulations
date from 1569, and then secured the same treatment as the Venetians,
French, Poles and the subjects of the emperor of Germany; they were
revised in 1675, and as then settled were confirmed by treaties of
subsequent date "now and for ever." Capitulations signify that which is
arranged under distinct "headings"; the Turkish phrase is "ahid nameh,"
whereas a treaty is "mouahede"--the latter does, and the former does
not, signify a reciprocal engagement. Thus, although the Turkish
capitulations are not in themselves treaties, yet by subsequent
confirmation they have acquired the force of commercial treaties of
perpetual duration as regards substance and principles, while details,
such as rates of customs duties, may, by mutual consent, be varied from
time to time.

The _most favoured nation_ article already referred to concedes to the
state in the treaty with which it is concluded whatever advantages in
the matters comprised within its stipulations have been allowed to any
foreign or third state. It does no