by frequent cut-offs. The original Rhine
pursues its way to the German Ocean. The dunes, or sand-hills, formerly
closed up this branch, and for a long period the water did not flow
through it; but at the beginning of the present century a canal was
opened through the old bed.

"The Yssel formerly flowed into a fresh-water lake, where the Zuyder
Zee, or Southern Sea, now is. Nearly the whole of the space occupied by
this sea was then dry land; but the ocean, in the course of time, swept
away its barriers, and covered the region with water, which is
navigable, however, only for small vessels. Amsterdam is situated on an
arm of this sea, called the Ij, or Eye, as it is pronounced. From the
Helder, a point of land at the southern entrance to the Zuyder Zee, a
ship canal, fifty miles in length, extends to the city. This is the
'great ditch' of Holland. It is eighteen feet deep, and broad enough for
two large ships to pass each other, having a double set of locks at each
end, in order to keep the water of uniform height, as in a dock.

"You are already familiar with the peculiar conformation of Holland.
There is not a hill, a forest, or a ledge of rocks worth mentioning in
the whole region. A large portion of its territory has been redeemed
from the ocean by the most persevering labor, and by the most
unremitting care and watchfulness is it kept from destruction. The sea
is higher than the land, the lowest ground in the country being from
twenty-four to thirty feet below high-water mark. The keel of the Young
America, floating in some of the waters of Holland, would be higher than
the ridge-pole of the Dutchman's cottage on the other side of the dike.

"These low grounds, formerly swamps and lagoons, which lie below the sea
level, are called _polders_. These were originally charged with water,
and merely shutting out the sea was only half the battle. As in Ireland,
the principal fuel of the people is peat, or turf, ten million tons of
which are annually used. Immense excavations have been made in the
polders to obtain the peat; and the inhabitants stand an ultimate chance
of being robbed of their country by fire as well as by water.

"The natural lakes and the peat-holes--the latter from twelve to twenty
feet deep--formed extensive water-basins. Some of you will remember the
turf diggings in the great bog in Ireland, as we passed through it on
our way to Killarney. The peat was not dug out in trenches, but the
entire surfa