sure
that their purchases were "delivered." Those who intimidated voters
could know when their intimidation was effective. In this way the party
ballot strengthened the party machine.

As a remedy for such abuses, reformers, learning from the experience of
Australia, urged the adoption of the "Australian ballot." That ballot,
though it appeared in many forms, had certain constant features. It was
official, that is, furnished by the government, not by party workers; it
contained the names of all candidates of all parties; it was given out
only in the polling places; and it was marked in secret. The first state
to introduce it was Massachusetts. The year was 1888. Before the end of
the century it had been adopted by nearly all the states in the union.
The salutary effect of the reform in reducing the amount of cheating
and bribery in elections was beyond all question.

=The Direct Primary.=--In connection with the uprising against machine
politics, came a call for the abolition of the old method of nominating
candidates by conventions. These time-honored party assemblies, which
had come down from the days of Andrew Jackson, were, it was said, merely
conclaves of party workers, sustained by the spoils system, and
dominated by an inner circle of bosses. The remedy offered in this case
was again "more democracy," namely, the abolition of the party
convention and the adoption of the direct primary. Candidates were no
longer to be chosen by secret conferences. Any member of a party was to
be allowed to run for any office, to present his name to his party by
securing signatures to a petition, and to submit his candidacy to his
fellow partisans at a direct primary--an election within the party. In
this movement Governor La Follette of Wisconsin took the lead and his
state was the first in the union to adopt the direct primary for
state-wide purposes. The idea spread, rapidly in the West, more slowly
in the East. The public, already angered against "the bosses," grasped
eagerly at it. Governor Hughes in New York pressed it upon the unwilling
legislature. State after state accepted it until by 1918 Rhode Island,
Delaware, Connecticut, and New Mexico were the only states that had not
bowed to the storm. Still the results were disappointing and at that
very time the pendulum was beginning to swing backward.

=Popular Election of Federal Senators.=--While the movement for direct
primaries was still advancing everywhere, a demand fo