to be the instrument of this "exploitation." The other
foundation stone was "the materialistic philosophy of history," that
is, the explanation of all the intellectual, cultural, and political
changes of mankind from the side of the material economic conditions
as causes. As Engels expressed it, "The pervading thought ... that the
economic production with the social organization of each historical
epoch necessarily resulting therefrom forms the basis of the political
and intellectual history of this epoch." This doctrine denies that,
in an equally valid sense, biological changes in brain, and cultural
changes in science, arts, and education, cause the mechanical
inventions and improved processes and thus alter the form bf economic
production.

Sec. 17. #Aspects of the materialistic philosophy of history#. Marx's
general formula of economic materialism had three minor propositions
or corollaries: (a) The doctrine of the _class conflict_; all history
is a record of the class struggle between those who have property,
the ruling classes within the nations, and those who have not, the
oppressed working class, (a conception of history blind to most of the
great international conflicts). The class conflict was declared to
be more sharply marked and bitter than ever before; "the entire human
society more and more divides itself into two great hostile camps,
into two great conflicting classes, _bourgeoisie_ and proletariate."
(b) The doctrine of _increasing misery_; the conditions before
described must cause the steadily increasing degradation of the
masses. (c) The _catastrophic theory_; the final and inevitable result
of this movement must be a revolution, when the downtrodden workers
will throw off their chains and expropriate the expropriators. There
is no doubt that Marx, when he first formulated this philosophy,
believed that such a revolution, most violent in nature, would occur
within a few years.

Sec. 18. #Utopian nature of "scientific" socialism#. The term
"scientific" set in contrast with "utopian" was meant to imply that
the doctrine of Marx was not "utopian" (a word which had come to mean
fanciful and impracticable). Marx had a contempt for the romances
of the ideal state and for what he deemed to be the unfounded
speculations of earlier prophets of communism. But utopian (from
_utopia_, Greek for no place) means nonexistent, and Marxian socialism
surely was that. "Experimental" or "actually at work" would have