lly, except the Dutch, who were themselves struggling
hard, and, as it seemed, hopelessly, to maintain their revolt against
Spain.

On the other hand, Philip II was absolute master of an empire so
superior to the other states of the world in extent, in resources, and
especially in military and naval forces as to make the project of
enlarging that empire into a universal monarchy seem a perfectly
feasible scheme; and Philip had both the ambition to perform that
project and the resolution to devote all his energies and all his means
to its realization. Since the downfall of the Roman Empire no such
preponderating power had existed in the world. During the mediaeval
centuries the chief European kingdoms were slowly moulding themselves
out of the feudal chaos; and though the wars with each other were
numerous and desperate, and several of their respective kings figured
for a time as mighty conquerors, none of them in those times acquired
the consistency and perfect organization which are requisite for a
long-sustained career of aggrandizement. After the consolidation of the
great kingdoms they for some time kept each other in mutual check.

During the first half of the sixteenth century the balancing system was
successfully practised by European statesmen. But when Philip II
reigned, France had become so miserably weak through her civil wars that
he had nothing to dread from the rival state which had so long curbed
his father, the Emperor Charles V. In Germany, Italy, and Poland he had
either zealous friends and dependents or weak and divided enemies.
Against the Turks he had gained great and glorious successes; and he
might look round the Continent of Europe without discerning a single
antagonist of whom he could stand in awe. Spain, when he acceded to the
throne, was at the zenith of her power.

The hardihood and spirit which the Aragonese, the Castilians, and the
other nations of the peninsula had acquired during centuries of free
institutions and successful war against the Moors had not yet become
obliterated. Charles V had, indeed, destroyed the liberties of Spain;
but that had been done too recently for its full evil to be felt in
Philip's time. A people cannot be debased in a single generation; and
the Spaniards under Charles V and Philip II proved the truth of the
remark that no nation is ever so formidable to its neighbors, for a
time, as a nation which, after being trained up in self-government,
passes suddenly