w, between it and the forefoot. It was usually made of oak, elm, or
ash, even when all the rest of the hull was constructed of soft timber.
In later times it was sheathed with, or even made entirely of, bronze.
It was often highly ornamented, either with a carved head of a ram or
some other animal, as shown in Figs. 8 to 11; sometimes swords or
spear-heads were added, as shown in Figs. 19 and 20. A relic of this
ancient custom is found to this day in the ornamentation of the prows of
the Venetian gondolas. Originally the ram, or rostrum, was visible above
the water-line, but it was afterwards found to be far more effective
when wholly immersed. In addition to the rams there were side
projections, or catheads, above water near the bow. The ram was used for
sinking the opposing vessels by penetrating their hulls, and the
catheads for shattering their oars when sheering up suddenly alongside.
Roman galleys were fitted with castles, or turrets, in which were placed
fighting men and various engines of destruction. They were frequently
temporary structures, sometimes consisting of little more than a
protected platform, mounted on scaffolding, which could be easily taken
down and stowed away. The use of these structures was continued till far
into the Middle Ages.

CHAPTER III.

ANCIENT SHIPS IN THE SEAS OF NORTHERN EUROPE.

Outside the Mediterranean it is known that some of the northern nations
had attained to very considerable skill in the arts of shipbuilding and
navigation. Caesar gives a general description of the ships of the
Veneti, who occupied the country now known as Brittany, and who had in
their hands the carrying trade between Gaul and Britain.[12] As might be
expected from the stormy nature of the Atlantic, the Veneti were not
able to place any reliance on oars as a means for propulsion. According
to Caesar's account, they trusted solely to sails. Their vessels were
built entirely of oak of great thickness. He also mentions that the
beams were as much as 12 in. in depth. The bottoms of these vessels were
very flat, so as to enable them the better to be laid up on the beach.
The hulls had considerable sheer, both at the stem and stern. The sails
were of dressed hide, and the cables were iron chains. It is evident
from this cursory description that the ships of the Veneti were not
based upon Mediterranean models, and it is highly probable that they,
rather than the oar-propelled galleys, may be regarded a