ithin oneself, and hold
all people to be the same in mind), _vaggupti_ (absolute silence), and
_kayagupti_ (absolute steadiness and fixity of the body). Five other kinds
of caritra are counted in _Dravyasamgrahav@rtti_ 35.]

200

honest householder of the present day. Great stress is laid upon
the virtues of ahi@msa, sun@rta, asteya and brahmacaryya, but the
root of all these is ahi@msa. The virtues of sun@rta, asteya and
brahmacaryya are made to follow directly as secondary corrollaries
of ahi@msa. Ahi@msa may thus be generalized as the fundamental
ethical virtue of Jainism; judgment on all actions may be
passed in accordance with the standard of ahi@msa; sun@rta, asteya
and brahmacaryya are regarded as virtues as their transgression
leads to hi@msa (injury to beings). A milder form of the practice
of these virtues is expected from ordinary householders and this
is called anubrata (small vows). But those who are struggling
for the attainment of emancipation must practise these virtues
according to the highest and strictest standard, and this is called
mahabrata (great vows). Thus for example brahmacaryya for a
householder according to the anubrata standard would be mere
cessation from adultery, whereas according to mahabrata it would
be absolute abstention from sex-thoughts, sex-words and sex-acts.
Ahi@msa according to a householder, according to anubrata,
would require abstinence from killing any animals, but according
to mahavrata it would entail all the rigour and carefulness to
prevent oneself from being the cause of any kind of injury to
any living being in any way.

Many other minor duties are imposed upon householders, all
of which are based upon the cardinal virtue of ahi@msa. These
are (1) _digvirati_ (to carry out activities within a restricted area
and thereby desist from injuring living beings in different places),
(2) _bhogopabhogamana_ (to desist from drinking liquors, taking
flesh, butter, honey, figs, certain other kinds of plants, fruits, and
vegetables, to observe certain other kinds of restrictions regarding
time and place of taking meals), (3) _anarthada@n@da_ consisting of
(a) _apadhyana_ (cessation from inflicting any bodily injuries,
killing of one's enemies, etc.), (b) _papopades'a_ (desisting from
advising people to take to agriculture which leads to the killing
of so many insects), (c) _hi@msopakaridana_ (desisting from
giving implements of agriculture to people which will lead
to the in