heir property, and their honor. At the same time he punished
crimes with severity, and even visited upon entire families the
transgression of one of their members. It is said to have been one of
his maxims, that "kings should never use the sword where the cane would
answer;" but, if the Armenian historians are to be trusted, in practice
he certainly did not err on the side of clemency.

Artaxerxes was, of course, an absolute monarch, having the entire power
of life or death, and entitled, if he chose, to decide all matters at
his own mere will and pleasure. But, in practice, he, like most Oriental
despots, was wont to summon and take the advice of counsellors. It is
perhaps doubtful whether any regular "Council of State" existed under
him. Such an institution had prevailed under the Parthians, where the
monarchs were elected and might be deposed by the Megistanes; but there
is no evidence that Artaxerxes continued it, or did more than call on
each occasion for the advice of such persons among his subjects as he
thought most capable. In matters affecting his relations towards
foreign powers he consulted with the subject kings, the satraps, and the
generals; in religious affairs he no doubt took counsel with the chief
Magi. The general principles which guided his conduct both in religious
and other matters may perhaps be best gathered from the words of that
"testament," or "dying speech," which he is said to have addressed to
his son Sapor. "Never forget," he said, "that, as a king, you are at
once the protector of religion and of your country. Consider the altar
and the throne as inseparable; they must always sustain each other. A
sovereign without religion is a tyrant; and a people who have none
may be deemed the most monstrous of all societies. Religion may exist
without a state; but a state cannot exist without religion; and it is by
holy laws that a political association can alone be bound. You should be
to your people an example of piety and of virtue, but without pride or
ostentation.... Remember, my son, that it is the prosperity or adversity
of the ruler which forms the happiness or misery of his subjects, and
that the fate of the nation depends on the conduct of the individual who
fills the throne. The world is exposed to constant vicissitudes; learn,
therefore, to meet the frowns of fortune with courage and fortitude,
and to receive her smiles with moderation and wisdom. To sum up all--may
your administration be