s, stanchions, and braces. In the first place,
there are two rows of beams, the upper deck and between decks,
principally of solid oak, partly also of pitch pine; and all of
these are further connected with each other, as well as with the
sides of the ship, by numerous supports. The accompanying diagrams
will show how they are arranged. The diagonal stays are, of course,
placed as nearly as possible at right angles to the sides of the ship,
so as to strengthen them against external pressure and to distribute
its force. The vertical stanchions between both tiers of beams and
between the lower beams and keelson are admirably adapted for this
latter object. All are connected together with strong knees and iron
fastenings, so that the whole becomes, as it were, a single coherent
mass. It should be borne in mind that, while in former expeditions
it was thought sufficient to give a couple of beams amidships some
extra strengthening, every single cross beam in the Fram was stayed
in the manner described and depicted.

In the engine-room there was, of course, no space for supports in the
middle, but in their place two stay ends were fixed on either side. The
beams of the lower deck were placed a little under the water-line,
where the ice pressure would be severest. In the after-hold these
beams had to be raised a little to give room for the engine. The
upper deck aft, therefore, was somewhat higher than the main deck,
and the ship had a poop or half-deck, under which were the cabins for
all the members of the expedition, and also the cooking-galley. Strong
iron riders were worked in for the whole length of the ship in the
spaces between the beams, extending in one length from the clamp
under the upper deck nearly to the keelson. The keelson was in two
tiers and about 31 inches (80 cm.) high, save in the engine-room,
where the height of the room only allows one tier. The keel consists
of two heavy American elm logs 14 inches square; but, as has been
mentioned, so built in that only 3 inches protrude below the outer
planking. The sides of the hull are rounded downward to the keel, so
that a transverse section at the midship frame reminds one forcibly
of half a cocoanut cut in two. The higher the ship is lifted out of
the water, the heavier does she, of course, become, and the greater
her pressure on the ice, but for the above reason the easier also
does it become for the ice to lift. To obviate much heeling, in
case the hull sho