. The _Philippics_ cover the period from 2nd
September 44 to 22nd April 43. They were all delivered in the Senate,
except iv. and vi., which are _contiones_, and ii., which was never
spoken, but published as a political pamphlet after Antony had left
Rome: for its fame cf. Juv. 10, 125,

'Te conspicuae, divina Philippica, famae,
volveris a prima quae proxima.'

There are fragments of about twenty speeches, and the titles of thirty
others are known. The invective _in Sallustium_, and the speech
_Pridie quam in exilium iret_, are undoubtedly spurious.

Many of the speeches were to a large extent extempore, the heads only
being committed to writing. These notes were afterwards collected by
Tiro (Quint. x. 7, 30-1). In publishing, Cicero occasionally omitted
some passages of the spoken oration, _e.g._ in _Pro Mur._ 57 only the
headings appear, 'De Postumi criminibus.' 'De Servi adulescentis': cf.
Plin. _Ep._ i. 20, 7, 'ex his apparet illum permulta dixisse, cum
ederet omisisse.' For the practice of reporting his speeches in
shorthand cf. Ascon. _in Mil._ 'manet illa quoque excepta eius oratio'
(his speech at Milo's trial). The only case in which Cicero appeared
for the prosecution was that of Verres: the part of an accuser was
generally distasteful to him; cf. _De Off._ ii. 50, 'duri hominis vel
potius vix hominis videtur, periculum capitis inferre multis.'

(b) Philosophical Works.

1. _De Re Publica_, a discussion of the ideal state and the ideal
citizen, was published before B.C. 51, for Caelius writes to Cicero in
Cilicia, 'tui politici libri omnibus vigent' (_ad Fam._ viii. 1, 4).
In this treatise Cicero made use of Plato, and of Aristotle,
Theophrastus, and other Peripatetics (_de Div._ ii. 3). There were six
Books; but until 1822 the _Somnium Scipionis_, extracted by Macrobius
from Book vi., was the only portion of the work known to exist, with
the exception of a few fragments. In that year Mai published at Rome,
from a Vatican palimpsest, remains which make up about one-third of
the whole.

2. The _De Legibus_ succeeded the _De Re Publica_, as Plato's _Laws_
came after the _Republic_. The speakers in this dialogue are Atticus,
Cicero, and his brother Quintus. Book i. expounds the Stoic position
that the laws of the ideal state are made by the wise man in
accordance with the mind of God; this position is worked out in Book
ii. in the regulations for religion, and in iii. on the duties of
magistrates. Th