f the formerly underprivileged groups and by denying
them to the formerly privileged ones. Because education has
traditionally been the main determinant of status, social mobility has
been directed by the state through strict control over educational
opportunities. Preference in admission to higher education has been
given to children of peasants and workers, children of long-standing
party members and children of persons killed in the resistance against
the Germans in World War II (see ch. 6). The political orientation of
the student himself and his membership in mass organizations such as the
youth union are also important factors in determining his admission to
an institution of higher learning.

In the late 1960s there was some evidence that social mobility was
slowing down and that the society was beginning to stabilize into
self-perpetuating social groups. With the slowing of economic growth the
number of job openings in the higher levels has been reduced, and the
intelligentsia can satisfy from its own ranks most of the demand for
professional and managerial personnel. The social mix of students in
higher education in the late 1960s was far from representative of the
population as a whole--only about 39 percent of the students were from
peasant or worker families, although these groups constituted about 78
percent of the population. In spite of all their admission advantages,
children of lower income families have not been able to compete
effectively with those of higher income background. Given education as a
main channel of mobility, disadvantage in educational opportunities
means lower possibility for social advancement. Political loyalty,
however, can still override all other considerations and propel a person
up the social ladder. Membership in the party, therefore, continues to
afford considerable advantage.

OTHER SOCIAL GROUPS

Bulgarians are not by nature joiners. Formal organizations were of
little significance in national life before the 1940s. Although a wide
variety of groups existed, mostly in the towns and cities, membership
was generally small and was based on strictly utilitarian
considerations. Individuals joined to derive the benefits provided by
the organization, such as easy credit, professional standing, use of
libraries and other cultural facilities, or use of sports facilities.
Few members were actively involved in the operation or the activities of
the organizations to which they bel