for laws recognized and obeyed as right.

(M54) That laws were already enacted in the pre-Semitic or Sumerian days
we may regard as certain. The legal phrase-books drawn up by later
scribes, especially those known as forming the series called _ana ittisu_,
give as specimens certain laws. These were evidently given by the scribes
as examples of connected prose in Sumerian, accompanied by a rendering
into Semitic. Their object was primarily grammatical, or at any rate
educational; but they are most valuable because they contain specimens of
the Sumerian legislation. Owing to their limited scope they were at first
regarded as family laws. But there can be little doubt that they really
are extracts from something like a code of laws. We are as yet quite
ignorant of the date of their first promulgation, place of origin, and
legislator. The seventh tablet of the series _ana ittisu_, Col. III. l. 22
to Col. IV. l. 22, gives the seven following laws:

(M55)

I. If a son has said to his father, "You are not my father," he
may brand him, lay fetters upon him, and sell him.

It may be doubted whether this applies to any but adopted sons. "You shall
not be my father" is a possible rendering. But the phrase may only refer
to rebellious conduct. The word rendered "brand" has often been taken to
mean "shave." The cutting short of the hair was a mark of degradation. The
Semitic Babylonians wore their hair long, while slaves, and perhaps also
Sumerians as a race, are represented as hairless. However that may be, the
same word is used of "branding" cattle and it implies cutting or incision.
It may mean a tattooed mark. The word rendered "fetter" seems also to be
used of a branded body-mark. The whole law means that the rebellious son
is to be degraded to the status of a slave and treated as such.

(M56)

II. If a son has said to his mother, "You are not my mother," one
shall brand his forehead, drive him out of the city, and make him
go out of the house.

Here the same ambiguity about branding is found. Some take the word
rendered "forehead" to mean the hair of the head. His head would then be
shaved. "To go out from the house" means "to be cut off from kith and
kin." But here the son retains his freedom, only he is an exile and
homeless. In this case it is not the mother who exacts the penalty. The
verb is plural and may be taken impersonally. The family or the city
magistrates are probably the ones t