national church so far in the direction of Puritanism that its
excesses had brought about a strong reactionary feeling. Parliament
had already sat for more than ten years, hence called the "Long
Parliament," and had become corrupt and despotic. Under these
circumstances, one modification after another was made in the form of
government until in 1653 Oliver Cromwell, the commander of the army
and long the most influential man in Parliament, dissolved that body
by military force and was made Lord Protector, with powers not very
different from those of a king. There was now a period of good order
and great military and naval success for England; Scotland and
Ireland, both of which had declared against the Commonwealth, were
reduced to obedience, and successful foreign wars were waged. But at
home the government did not succeed in obtaining either popularity or
general acceptance. Parliament after Parliament was called, but could
not agree with the Protector. In 1657 Cromwell was given still higher
powers, but in 1658 he died. His son, Richard Cromwell, was installed
as Protector. The republican government had, however, been gradually
drifting back toward the old royal form and spirit, so when the new
Lord Protector proved to be unequal to the position, when the army
became rebellious again, and the country threatened to fall into
anarchy, Monk, an influential general, brought about the reassembling
of the Long Parliament, and this body recalled the son of Charles I to
take his hereditary seat as king.

This event occurred in 1660, and is known as the Restoration. Charles
II reigned for twenty-five years. His reign was in one of its aspects
a time of reaction in manners and morals against the over-strictness
of the former Puritan control. In government, notwithstanding the
independent position of the king, it was the period when some of the
most important modern institutions came into existence. Permanent
political parties were formed then for the first time. It was then
that the custom arose by which the ministers of the government are
expected to resign when there proves to be a majority in Parliament
against them. It was then that a "cabinet," or group of ministers
acting together and responsible for the policy of the king, was first
formed. The old form of the established church came again into power,
and harsh laws were enacted against Presbyterians, Baptists, Quakers,
and members of the other sects which had grown up