of religion and
culture. But it is clear from Buddhist writings (which, however, are
somewhat later) that this pre-eminence was not unchallenged[202], and
many admissions in the Brahmanas and Upanishads indicate that some
centuries before the Buddha the Kshatriyas held socially the first rank
and shared intellectual honours with the Brahmans. Janaka, king of
Videha[203], and Yajnavalkya, the Brahman, meet on terms of mutual
respect and other Kshatriyas, such as Ajatasatru of Kasi and Pravahana
Jaivali are represented as instructing Brahmans, and the latter in doing
so says "this knowledge did not go to any Brahman before but belonged to
the Kshatriyas alone[204]." But as a profession theology, both practical
and speculative, was left to the Brahmans.

The proper relation between the nobles and Brahmans finds expression in
the office of Purohita[205] or domestic chaplain, which is as old as the
Vedas and has lasted to the present day. In early times he was not
merely a spiritual guide but also a councillor expected to advise the
king as to his enterprises and secure their success by appropriate
rites. By king we should understand a tribal chief, entrusted with
considerable powers in the not infrequent times of war, but in peace
obliged to consult the clan, or at least the aristocratic part of it, on
all matters of importance. A Purohita might attain a very high position,
like Devabhaga, priest of both the Kurus and Srinjayas[206]. The
Brahmans did not attempt to become kings, but the sacred books insist
that though a Brahman can do without a king, yet a king cannot do
without a Brahman. The two castes are compared to the deities Mitra and
Varuna, typifying intelligence and will. When they are united deeds can
be done[207]. But "the Gods do not eat the food of a king who is without
a Purohita." Other castes can offer sacrifices only by the mediation of
Brahmans, and it does not appear that kings disputed this, though they
claimed the right to think for themselves and may have denied the
utility of sacrifice[208]. Apart from kings the duties and claims of the
Brahman extend to the people at large. He has four virtues, "birth,
deportment, fame and the perfecting of the people," and in return the
people owe him respect, liberality, security against oppression and
against capital punishment.

Towns in this period must have been few and those few essentially forts,
not collections of palaces and temples. We hear of Kasi (Ben