movement from an urban
center and beyond the urban center. Each civilization has been built
around one or more urban nuclei which accepted and practiced expansion
as the primary law of their beings.

Expansion takes many forms. It may be peaceful, as travel is peaceful.
It may be competitive, as trade is competitive. It may be economically
aggressive; the search for markets, for raw materials, for investment
opportunities carried on simultaneously by representatives of long time
rival cities, states, empires. It may be a movement for a place in the
sun; mass migration, colonization. It may take the form of planned
military invasion having as its purpose the conquest and occupation of
foreign territory; the subjugation of the citizenry of the conquered
lands; the establishment of an alien government in the conquered
territory; the reduction of the "natives" to the status of second class
citizens in their own homelands; exploitation of the natural resources;
the levying of tribute; the imposition of taxes and the expropriation of
moveable articles such as bullion, works of art and other treasure by
the invaders, conquerors and occupiers.

Policies of expansion, conquest and occupation rely upon weaponry and
war-making as essential instruments. Historically their role has been
frankly recognized by builders of every empire and the leaders of every
civilization. All civilizations known to history prepared for war and
utilized war as the final arbiter in their pursuit of expansionist
policy. Empire builders and civilizers have taken it for granted that
might made right. The mighty, in terms of military striking power and
killing power, have fought over and inherited the earth.

The practices of every civilization have centered about exploitation--of
natural resources, of labor power, of rivals in the race for supremacy,
of weaker and less aggressive peoples. Expansion gives the ruling
oligarchy of the expanding nation, empire or civilization command of the
strategic vantage points from which the principle of exploitation can be
made continuously operative.

We have dealt with exploitation in connection with the economics of
civilization (Chapter 7). Its central concept is the "you work--I eat"
formula. In sociological terms it extends far beyond livelihood, into
the relations of man with the natural environment (ecology); the
management and direction of labor power and policy making; social
administration and policy impl