ad, was a kaleidoscopic
spectacle of successive presidents or dictators, an unstable array of
self-styled "generals" without a presidential succession. There were
no fewer than fifty such transient rulers in thirty-two years, with
anywhere from one to six a year, with even the same incumbent twice in
one year, or, in the case of the repetitious Santa Anna, nine times
in twenty years--in spite of the fact that the constitutional term of
office was four years. This was a record that made the most turbulent
South American states seem, by comparison, lands of methodical
regularity in the choice of their national executive. And as if this
instability in the chief magistracy were not enough, the form of
government in Mexico shifted violently from federal to centralized, and
back again to federal. Mad struggles raged between partisan chieftains
and their bands of Escoceses and Yorkinos, crying out upon the
"President" in power because of his undue influence upon the choice of a
successor, backing their respective candidates if they lost, and waiting
for a chance to oust them if they won.

This tumultuous epoch had scarcely begun when Spain in 1829 made a final
attempt to recover her lost dominion in Mexico. Local quarrels were
straightway dropped for two months until the invaders had surrendered.
Thereupon the great landholders, who disliked the prevailing Yorkino
regime for its democratic policies and for favoring the abolition
of slavery, rallied to the aid of a "general" who issued a manifesto
demanding an observance of the constitution and the laws! After Santa
Anna, who was playing the role of a Mexican Warwick, had disposed of
this aspirant, he switched blithely over to the Escoceses, reduced the
federal system almost to a nullity, and in 1836 marched away to conquer
the revolting Texans. But, instead, they conquered him and gained their
independence, so that his reward was exile.

Now the Escoceses were free to promulgate a new constitution, to abolish
the federal arrangement altogether, and to replace it by a strongly
centralized government under which the individual States became mere
administrative districts. Hardly had this radical change been effected
when in 1838 war broke out with France on account of the injuries which
its nationals, among whom were certain pastry cooks, had suffered during
the interminable commotions. Mexico was forced to pay a heavy indemnity;
and Santa Anna, who had returned to fight the inv