or in trade or to the town of Oxford, whose individual
scholars had migrated from Paris and had attracted disciples for a
long time. These schools grew up around St. Mary's Church, but had
not been started by the church as there was no cathedral school in
Oxford. Oxford had started as a burh and had a royal residence and
many tradesmen. It was given its basic charter in 1155 by the
King. This confirmed to it all the customs, laws and liberties
[rights] as those enjoyed by London. It became a model charter for
other towns.

Bachelors at Oxford studied the arts of grammar, rhetoric, and
logic, and then music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, until
they mastered their discipline and therefore were authorized to
teach it. Teaching would then provide an income sufficient to
support a wife. The master of arts was analogous to the master
craftsman of a guild. From 1190, the civil law was studied, and
shortly thereafter, canon law. Later came the study of medicine.
The use of paper supplemented the use of parchment for writing.
Irregular edged paper was made from linen, cotton, straw, and/or
wood beaten to a pulp and then spread out over a wire mesh to dry.

Theologicians taught that the universe was made for the sake and
service of man, so man was placed at the center of the universe.
Man was made for the sake and service of God.

Every freeman holding land of a lord gave homage and fealty to
him, swearing to bear him faith of the tenement held and to
preserve his earthly honor in all things, saving the faith owed to
the king. Homage was done for lands, for free tenements, for
services, and for rents precisely fixed in money or in kind.
Homage could be done to any free person, male or female, adult or
minor, cleric or layman. A man could do several homages to
different lords for different fees, but there had to be a chief
homage to that lord of whom he held his chief tenement. Homage was
not due for dower, from the husband of a woman to whom a tenement
was given as a marriage portion, for a fee given in free alms, or
until the third heir, either for free maritagium [a marriage
portion which is given with a daughter in marriage, that is not
bound to service] or for the fee of younger sisters holding of the
eldest. All fiefs to be inherited by the eldest son had to be
intact. Every lord could exact fealty from his servants.

In this era, the English national race and character was formed.
Only a few barons still had l