readily observed. As
illustrations we may refer to the wolf, ranging over Europe and Northern
Asia, while the jackal inhabits Southern Asia and Northern Africa; the
tree-porcupines, of which there are two closely allied species, one
inhabiting the eastern, the other the western half of North America; the
common hare (Lepus timidus) in Central and Southern Europe, while all
Northern Europe is inhabited by the variable hare (Lepus variabilis);
the common jay (Garrulus glandarius) inhabiting all Europe, while
another species (Garrulus Brandti) is found all across Asia from the
Urals to Japan; and many species of birds in the Eastern United States
are replaced by closely allied species in the west. Of course there are
also numbers of closely related species in the same country, but it will
almost always be found that they frequent different stations and have
somewhat different habits, and so do not come into direct competition
with each other; just as closely allied plants may inhabit the same
districts, when one prefers meadows the other woods, one a chalky soil
the other sand, one a damp situation the other a dry one. With plants,
fixed as they are to the earth, we easily note these peculiarities of
station; but with wild animals, which we see only on rare occasions, it
requires close and long-continued observation to detect the
peculiarities in their mode of life which may prevent all direct
competition between closely allied species dwelling in the same area.

_The Ethical Aspect of the Struggle for Existence_.

Our exposition of the phenomena presented by the struggle for existence
may be fitly concluded by a few remarks on its ethical aspect. Now that
the war of nature is better known, it has been dwelt upon by many
writers as presenting so vast an amount of cruelty and pain as to be
revolting to our instincts of humanity, while it has proved a
stumbling-block in the way of those who would fain believe in an
all-wise and benevolent ruler of the universe. Thus, a brilliant writer
says: "Pain, grief, disease, and death, are these the inventions of a
loving God? That no animal shall rise to excellence except by being
fatal to the life of others, is this the law of a kind Creator? It is
useless to say that pain has its benevolence, that massacre has its
mercy. Why is it so ordained that bad should be the raw material of
good? Pain is not the less pain because it is useful; murder is not less
murder because it is conduc