gain, first in Africa, then in Spain; and of
the three years and nine months of life that remained to Caesar, much
the greater portion was spent at the head of his army. He, therefore,
had not time to give any complete organization to his new government.
But his intentions are clearly discernible in outline. Supreme power,
legislative as well as executive, was to be vested in a single ruler,
governing not by divine right, but as the representative of the
community, and in its interest. This was indeed an ideal by no means
novel to Romans. Scipio had brooded over it. Caius Gracchus had for a
moment realized it. The oldest institutions and traditions told of it.
It was the power of the ancient kings theoretically continued to, and
in grave emergencies actually exercised by, the magistrates of the
Republic during its best days. It had been increasingly overshadowed
by the Senate. That body was now to be reduced to its original
consultative office. The functions of the executive had been gradually
divided among several magistrates. They were now to be re-concentrated.
Above all, annual election--the cherished institution of all
oligarchies, open or disguised--was to be replaced by life-tenure,
with power to name a successor. The subjects of Rome were to be
admitted to citizenship, wherever and whenever fit for it; and there
is reason to believe that Caesar intended to move much faster in this
direction than his successor did. Rome itself, from the mistress of
the Empire, was to become its capital and most dignified municipality.
All old parties--Caesar's own included--were to consider themselves at
an end. "To the victors the spoils!" was a cry rebuked from the first.
For the vanquished of Pharsalia there was not only amnesty, but
admission to the highest grades of the public service, if they would
bury their old grudge and recognize the government. Pauperism among
the lower class, and insolvency among the upper--ulcers not admitting
of a radical cure--were treated with judicious palliatives. Taxation
was reduced, expenditure was increased, and yet the balance in the
treasury at Caesar's death was tenfold what it had ever been before--a
proof of the frightful waste and corruption from which the Roman world
was rescued by the overthrow of the oligarchy.

Of the administrative work of Caesar it is impossible here to give any
adequate idea. A reform of the calendar, which served the West till
1582, and serves Russia still; a r