s of slaves,
the latter being recruited (in the larval or pupal stage) by slave raids
upon neighbouring ant-hills.

Thus war is endemic, and every citizen of these democracies, every
worker ant, has to take part in the fighting. In certain species
(Pheidole pallidula), the military caste is distinct from the working
caste. The soldier takes no part in domestic work, but idles away the
days in barracks, with nothing to do save at the times when life has to
be staked for the defence of the community.[76] There are no leaders, or
at any rate no permanent leaders. We see neither kings nor generals. The
expeditionary armies of Polyergus rufescens, which may vary from one
hundred thousand to two hundred thousand ants, act in obedience to
streams of influence which appear to emanate from small and scattered
groups, sometimes in the van and sometimes in the rear. When the army is
on the march, the entire column will suddenly halt, remaining indecisive
and motionless, as if paralysed. Of a sudden, the initiative will be
taken by some small group of ants whose members rush about among the
others, striking these on the head; then the temporary leaders start
off, and the whole army is in motion once more.

Formica sanguinea is an able tactician. Forel follows Huber in his
description of the fighting methods of this species. The insects do not
advance in close formation, a la Hindenburg, but in platoons,
communicating one with another by orderlies. They do not make a frontal
attack; but, after watching the enemy's movements, attempt to take him
by surprise on the flank. Their aim, like that of Napoleon, is to
concentrate upon a given point at a particular time, to secure there and
then the advantage of numbers. Like Napoleon, too, they know how to
lower the adversary's morale. Seizing the psychological moment when the
enemy's courage or confidence flags, they hurl themselves upon him with
irresistible fury, now recking nought of numbers, for they know that at
such a time one fighter on their own side is worth a hundred on the
other, where panic is rife. Moreover, like good soldiers, their aim is
not to kill, so much as to gain the victory and to harvest its fruits.
When the battle is won they post a guard at each exit of the conquered
nest. The members of this guard allow the enemy ants to escape, provided
these carry nothing away. The victors pillage to the uttermost, but do
as little killing as possible.

Between species of equ